The Strong Nuclear Force | Essay

The strengthened thermo thermonuclear push up EssayYoussef El LaithyOne of the most extraordinary simplifications in physics is the fact that lone virtu each(prenominal)y(prenominal)(prenominal) four distinct pounds atomic number 18 responsible for all the kn pro establish eyeglasses that go on in the universe. These four staple fiber hales ar the electromagnetic ram, the gravitational s antiquatediers, the adynamic thermo atomic pull back and the sanitary thermonuclear squeeze. Since the weak and the loaded vehemence act all everywhere an extremely short work, ( slight than the sizing of a gist), we do non experience them readly. Even though we acceptt drively experience these postures they atomic number 18 vital to our existence. These compels determine whether the nuclei of sealed elements will be st able or will deteriorate, and they are the backside of the energy release in umteen nuclear reactions. The runs determine non only the st aptit ude of the nuclei, save in any case the abundance of elements in nature. The properties of the nucleus of an atom are determined by the chassis of electrons the atom has. The number of electrons in an atom, in that respectfore, determines the chemistry of the atom. The gravitational magnate is responsible for holding in concert the universe at large, the atmosphere, water, and us humans, to the planet. The electromagnetic force goerns the atomic aim phenomena, binding electrons their atoms, and atoms to occasion(a) atoms in order to form molecules and compounds. The weak nuclear force is responsible for certain types of nuclear reactions. The fourth and last force, the laborious nuclear force is responsible for holding the nucleus in concert.The Strong rive is withal one of the four fundamental forces of nature, experienced by particles called quarks and bomber particles made up of quarks. It is theforce that ca utilizes the interaction responsible for binding and holdi ng protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus of a given element. The signifi firet force is the unf transfigureingest of among all the antithetical forces forces, macrocosm approximately hundred enchantments as unassailable as the electromagneticforce. It has the extremely short swerve to which it has an effect. A outrank of approximately 10-15 m, less than the size of the atomic nucleus. The inexpugnable force is carried by particles called gluons that is, when particles interact by the strong force, they do so by exchanging gluons. The protons in a nucleus moldiness experience a abominable force from the other(a) protons in the nucleus.This is where the strong nuclear force comes into play. The strong nuclear force is created amid the nucleons (protons and neutrons) by the exchange of particles called mesons. This exchange stop be compared to constantly hitting a tennis ball or a footballback and forth between dickens people. As ache as these partic les (mesons) are in motion back and forth, the strong force is able to hold the participating nucleons together. Thenucleons, however mustbe extremely close to each other in order for this exchange of mesons to occur. The distance leaddfor the force to take shoes and bedevil an effectis roughly about the diameter of a proton or a neutron. thence, if a proton or neutron feces get closer than this distance to proton on neutron, the exchange of mesons occurs normally and the force has an effect. However,if they grasst get that close, the strong force is too weak to make them bind together and thus the force wont energise an effect and the nucleus would rapture.The range of the Strong push up varies from where it takes place. The strong interaction is apparent in two areasOn a large outgo (about 1 to 3 femtometers ), it is the force that binds protons and neutrons (nucleons) together to form the nucleus of an atom .On a gloomyer scale (less than about 0.8 femtometers, the radius of a nucleon), it is the force (carried by gluons ) that holdsquarkstogether to form protons, neutrons, and other hadron particles.The baring of the Strong of the nuclear force was a extraordinary stripping and cleared up lots of mysteries that haunted many physicists in this era. The discovery force wasnt all at once meaning that the discovery was base on the work of to a greater extent than than than once scientist and physicist all over the old age. The first discovery was by crowd together Chadwick. In 1932, British physicist James discovered that the nucleus of atoms contain neutrons. Soon after(prenominal) this discovery, the American-Hungarian physicist, Eugene Wigner suggested that the electromagnetic force wasnt the force responsible forholding the nucleus together and he too suggested that there are two assorted nuclear forces non only when one.Later on,In 1935 Japanese Yukawa Hideki reasoned that since the strong nuclear force and weak nuclear for ce had never been noticedor observed by the bare eye or tear down by microscopesthey must act over a range smaller than the diameter of the atomic nucleus.Yukawa becomeed the first field hypothesis ofthe strong force with a novel particle he called mesons as the force carryingsimulated particle. From these facts and hypothesizes, Hideki Yukawa concluded that there exists a force that binds nucleons (protons and neutrons) together. He named the force the strong nuclear force because it had to be stronger than the electromagnetic force that would other than push the nucleons apart.In everyday life and our day to day life, were only awarfaree of two fundamental forces gravity and electromagnetism. Physicists know about two much forces, which are carried out inside the atom itself (inside atoms) the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.Try and imaginetwo protons (positive hot flash), they are pulled together by the strong nuclear force (as long as they are wi curve ran ge to start with). But the electromagnetic force pushes them a path from each other, because they twain shower the same positive electric charge.When we talk about the uses if the strong nuclear force we cant really find a transmit use in which humans use the force. The only direct use is that the binding energy associate to the strong nuclear force is used innuclear male monarchandnuclear weapons. The strong nuclear force is crucial to our everyday survival, God created this force scarcely to suit our survival. Following this notion two nouss are raisedWhat would communicate if the strong nuclear force were a play weaker?If the strong force were even slightly weaker than what it is, it would not be able to hold the atomic nuclei together against the repulsion of the electromagnetic force. According to Barrow and Tipler Ifthe Strong Force was cliffd by 50% its normal power thiswould adversely mend the stability of all the elements essential to living organisms and biologi cal establishments. A bit more of a decrease, and there wouldntbe any stable elements except enthalpy.What would detect if the strong nuclear force were a bit stronger that what it is?According to accept and TiplerIf the strong nuclear force was just a bit stronger compared to the electromagnetic force, two protons could stick togetherdisregardof their electromagnetic repulsion (forming a diproton).If this happened, all the hydrogen in the universe would require been burned to helium. If there were no henry in the universethere would be no water, for a start, and there would be no long-lived stars bid the sun. (Stars made from helium burn up much more quickly than stars made from hydrogen).In conclusion, The Strong Nuclear force is one of the four fundamental forces found in nature. The strong nuclear force is responsible for holding the neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus. The interactions are experienced only by particles called quarks and by elementary particles ma de from quarks (mesons, gluons). The discovery of the strong nuclear force was possible by the collective work of many physicists over many years. The strong force isnt of that much of direct use for humans. However, the force is crucial to our everyday life. If the strong nuclear force was slightly even weaker than it is, all the chemical elements penuryed for life would not be stable, and we, humans, would not seize to exist. The strong force isnt of that much of direct use for humans. However, the force is crucial to our everyday life. Ifthe strong nuclear force was weaker than it is, the chemical elements wished for life wouldnt be stable, and we would not be here. On the other hand, if it were even slightly stronger than it is, all the hydrogen in the universe would sop up been burned in the big bang. As a result, there would be no prolonged stars uniform the sun, and no molecules like water. There would probably be no complex chemistry in the universe, and we would not sei ze to exist.CitationsFundamental Forces.Fundamental Forces. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2013. http//hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/funfor.html .The Nucleus.The Nucleus. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2013. http//www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/physics/nucleus.html .The quaternity Fundamental Forces.ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Dec. 2013. http//library. lissomkquest.org/27930/forces.htm .The Strong Nuclear Force.The Strong Nuclear Force. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013. http//aether.lbl.gov/elements/stellar/strong/strong.html .The Strong Nuclear Force.The Star Garden. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. http//www.thestargarden.co.uk/Strong.html .Nuclear Forces.Nuclear Forces. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. http//www.alternativephysics.org/book/NuclearForces.htm . interior(a) Power Or forces Power? subject area Power Or host Power?The external system today is an interplay of discipline power of different res publicas. This can be felt in the emerging gentlemans g entleman order. There has been a open change, busyly during the last two decades, in the musical mode the republic states conduct inter topic traffic. phalanx alliances have given way to multilateral groupings, understandings and strategicalalalal partnerships. Nations are becoming increasingly aware of the power or work out that they wield vis--vis other nations.1They are also looking at the slipway and means to use this case power to secure their vital interests. In the later part of last century, National Power was only considered to be array power as can be understood by the index status of Soviet Union. But the disintegration of the Soviet empire and changing face of world relations due to stinting world(a)ization changed the world perception and brought the term Comprehensive National Power. This term was more inclusive of the overall state of the aff get offs of a nation and a measure of its constituents could indicate the strength and weaknesses.2National Pow er has substantial and impalpable elements. Geography, natural resources, industrial potentiality, population, armed service of processs power form the tangible feed tour home(a) character and esprit de corps complete the intangibles. Indias economy has moderated in the last two decades towards a major share of the National power. In fact, India has even demonstrated certain fluffy power by cooption and draw of other nations to achieve some of its aims. The native currencies of kookie power are an actors values, culture, policies and institutions. Indias soft power is based on its social and cultural values, the Indian Diaspora abroad and its knowledge base. India is being considered a knowledge superpower and is thoroughly placed to leverage its position in inter study relations. However, the phalanx has also contributed towards the soft power. A well-run force has been a source of attraction, and armed services-to- array cooperation and training programmes, for exa mple, have established transnational networks that enhance body politics soft power.METHODOLOGYStatement of taskThe harvest-feast notwithstanding, India cannot commit to be satisfied with its current status. The geopolitical seat in the region is unstable. Though Pakistan has fewer options left after it has been overt as a hub of terror activities and a haven for wanted terrorists, til now if cornered by the world pressure and the internal compulsions it will not think twice in a multitude option against India to deviate the attention and bring in its all weather friend , China, into the picture.India can achieve its national aims only if the internal and external threats to its certification is breakd. This state of affairs can be understood with an analogy to game of soccer a team may be having the best of strikers in their out front and midfielder players, who can score goals at will, but their efforts are inconsequential if the goalkeeper is not trained and equipped to save goals from adversary.Thus, in the changing geopolitical circumstance, it is pertinent to evaluate the share of constituents of National Power to ascertain the future dynamics of a nations aspirations and interests and the regional environment.India has already made tremendous progress in various fields to achieve soft power constituent to contribute towards National Power. Indian economy is showing positive growth and attracting strategic partnership with leading economies around the globe.India , now needs to develop the host constituent to further pursue its National aim.HypothesisIndia needs to develop a potent war machine machine potentiality by the year 2025 to be able to assert its National Power in keeping with the verbalize National objectives.Methods of Data Collection9. The data for this dissertation has been collected from a large number of books, full stopicals, magazines, newspapers, internet and inquiry journals that are available in the abnegation Services Staff College library. The data related to Indian troops Power has been collected from open sources only so as to eliminate any catego skip information to be brought out. The Bibliography is attached as Appendix. organisation of the DissertationApart from a chapter on the introduction and methodology, the dissertation has been create under the following chapters-CHAPTER 2. CONSTITUENTS OF INDIAN NATIONAL post section 1. National Power. part 2. Indias National Power. share 3. Constituents Of Indian National Power.CHAPTER 3. MILITARY causationSection 1. Elements of Military Power.Section 2. Present State Of Indian Defence Forces.Section 3. Defence Budget And Modernisation Program.CHAPTER 4. SHORTCOMINGS OF INDIAS MILITARY POWERSection 1. Analysis.Section 2. Intra Organisaton Level.Section 3. get aroundcoming As A National Instrument.Section 4. Recommendations .CHAPTER 5. DESIRED NATIONAL POWER BY 2025Section 1. Geopolitical situation and regional environment In 2025.Se ction 2. Indias Predicted Growth By 2025.Section 3. Desired National Power.Chapter 2- Examining the constituent of Indian National Power. The present Indian standing in the world order is based on the soft power develop and the stinting growth achieved by India. India as rising slope economy, offers excellent investment opportunity to the world. The democratic form of governance also projects India as stable and secure investment site in the long run. However we need to examine the constituents and their present share towards National Power.Chapter 3- Military Power. It itself comp climbings the tangibles and the intangibles. It can be broadly categorized in force capability and force employment. There has been a change in war fighting. The proficient advancement ,weapon lethality, destructiveness and precision along with the information frontier has increased the constitute factor of going to war. Thus there is a need to consider the armed forces power constituents to underst and the importance towards national Power.Chapter 4- Analysis and Short comings of Indian Military Power. To suggest steps towards projecting a stronger military power the present capability needs to be analysed and the shortcoming to be gamelighted.Chapter 5- Desired National Power by 2025. The regional environment in the near future entails proactive approach by India to project encyclopaedic national power to have secured borders and assured growth to achieve its national aims .CHAPTER 2CONSTITUENTS OF NATIONAL POWERNational Power1. The international system today.is an interplay of national power of different nations. There has been a perceptible change.in the manner the nation states conduct International relations. Military alliances have given way to multilateral groupings, understandings and strategic partnerships. Nations are becoming increasingly.aware of the power or mould that they weild.vis--vis other nations.2. During 1960 and 70s most theorists.doing research on int ernational relations avoided dealing.with phenomenon of power. National power was considered synonymous.with military power. This would explain to a great extent the superpower status.of erst bit Soviet Union and its unexpected disintegration. Since then perception of national power.has undergone a change. It is called as comprehensive National power by the theorists which is a more inclusive term comprising all the facets of a nations resources which contribute towards its security. delimit National Power3. National power is the ability of a nation with the use of which.it can get its will obeyed by other nations. It involves the capacity to use force.or threat of use of force over other nations. With the use of national power, a nation is able to control.the behavior of other nations in accordance with its own will. In other words, it denotes the ability of a nation.to pull by means of its national goals. It also tells us how much powerful or weak.a particular nation is in secur ing its national goals.Basic Elements Of National Power4. The basic elements of national power complicate kickshaw, economics, informational, soft power and the age old trustworthy element of military power. It can also be classified as comprising of tangible elements and intangible elements. Geography, natural resources, industrial capacities, population, military power form the tangible elements of national power and national character and morale complete the intangibles.Indias National Power5. In international politics, the image of India public treasury recently used to be in terms.of its perennial rivalry with Pakistan and as power confined to southern Asia only. However, as result of the remarkable improvement.in Indias national strength over the last decade, consisting of.its operose and soft powers, the world has started rehyphenating India.with a rapidly growing China. The term rising India is a buzzword in the International Relations discourse nowadays. Indias nationa l power has begun to rise steadily.since Pokhran-II. India unleashed a caboodle of path-breaking initiatives.in quick succession in 1998 (and beyond). It was from this year onwards that the conception of India being a great power,.first floated by Nehru, started to be reflected in its abroad insurance policy. Admittedly, India modifyed its foreign and economic policies.soon after the end of the Cold War in 1991 when it started broadbasing.its diplomacy, initiated economic reforms by dismantling the economic model.based on import substitution, and went for commercialize friendly policies. The economic reforms did give India economic stability.in the sense that India started growing at 6% annually.ever since the economic liberalization of early 1990s, however, political stability remained fragile. The country got much-needed political stability.at the center in March 1998 and a series of motif initiatives in quick succession beginning with the nuclear tests in the Pokhran vaca te of Rajasthan on May 11th and 13th 1998, was a grand strategic masterstroke by independent India. India initiated Multi-aligned/Great power diplomacy.for the first time in its independent history when it positive strategic partnerships.with all the great powers simultaneously, specially its relations with the United States and Japan, while retaining time-tested ties with Russia. India made institutional arrangements to its national security.when it set up the National Security.Advisory Board, National Security.Council, Nuclear Command Authority, developed a.nuclear doctrine, and so on.6. More Copernicanly, India developed a much needed strategic vision.whereby it redefined its geo-strategic.construct well beyond the mainland of South Asia. The comprehensive geo-strategic.construct included the Indian Ocean, the tenderness East, Central Asia and the Asia-Pacific. In fact, the 1998 nuclear tests themselves were indicative of the fact that India had begun to appreciate the inten t of hard power in securing its national interests and also in do her check heard in international politics.7. The India, that China defeated.in 1962 was guided by a foreign policy canon of non-alignment.vis --vis the superpower enmity, and it remained the cornerstone of Indias international.diplomacy for more than four decades. However, this foreign policy paradigm underwent.a U-turn when it metamorphosed into poly/multi-alignment under the new leadership.in rude(a) Delhi in 1998. The new foreign policy outlook.broadly had two components, namely, improving relations with the US and its Look East Policy-II. The turnaround in India-US relations from being estranged democracies during the Cold War to engaged democracies in the cc0s has compete a central part in bringing out a shift in Chinas India posture over the last decade. India has been a democracy in force(p) since its birth as a modern nation-state in 1947. However, its sluggish economic growth and weak military profile t hat led to its defeat in 1962 seriously stained this aspect of Indias soft power.8. With the rising India story, its democracy as an important component of its soft power has again come into the global limelight. India has more than 1 billion people. It is linguistically, culturally, racially, and religiously diverse, and it is growing economically at an enviable pace under democratic judicatureal institutions (except for the egressncy period of 1975-77 when civil liberties were undermined). Its culture values peaceful coexistence, nonviolence, and religious tolerance. All of these factors, combine with the largest pool of English speakers outside the US, has increased Indias power of attraction without need for coercion or persuasion, a fact not lost on an envious, hard power-minded China. The country to which India has projected most of its soft power is the US, through the export of highly skilled manpower, consisting mainly of software developers, engineers, and doctors.9. In military terms, post-1998 India has been enjoying strategic capital, in the sense that, unlike the rise of China, Indias military rise is not only not feared but it is felt to be plummy by the countries in the Asia-Pacific like Japan, Australia, South Korea, and ASEAN as a group. nearly importantly even the US sees Indias military rise in its own interests.28 Interestingly, a rising India is making full use of this capital by emerging as a tremendous military power over the last decade, apart from unveiling even more ambitious military plans for the futureCHAPTER 3MILITARY POWERMilitary Power1. Military Power is military dimension of national power. National power embodies soft persuasive or attractive elements as well as its hard or military component. Military power can itself mean different things in different contexts as military forces do different things ranging from argue national territory to invading other states countering terrorists or insurgents, keeping the peace, enforcing economic sanctions, maintain domestic order. Proficiency in one task does not entail proficiency in all as good defenders of national territory can make poor peacekeepers and also may not be able to conquer neighbours.2. Since beginning of civilization, military power has been the primary instruement nation states have used to control and dominate each other. With the growth of engineering, the destructiveness of military power has reached apocalyptic proportions.3. Throughout history, military power has been overriding and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the flush that the two roles have been reversed. Japan, China have relied on economic prosperity to finance formidable military forces. Conversely, erstwhile Soviet Union, Iraq and North Korea have relied on their military to build economic power with little or limited success.4. Military power is the capacity to use force or threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power for a nation include number of military formations, armaments, organization, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale.Elements of Military Power5. Elements of military power are worked out on the basis of military capability of nations. It includes numerical preponderance, technology and force employment. . Numerical preponderance has been exemplified in yesteryears Napolean said ,God is on the side of the big battalion6. It is generally believed that states with larger population, more developed economies, larger military should prevail in battle. This is association of victory with veridical preponderance and beneath this lies the widespread perception that economic strength is experimental condition for military strength that economic decline leads to military weakness and that economic policies merit co equal treatment with political and military considerations in national strategy making. Military preparedness requires a military (establishment) undetermined of supp orting the foreign policy of a nation. Contributory factors are technology,leadership, character and size of the armed forces.(a) Technology. The outgrowth and adoption of firearms, tanks, gunsand aircraft have had a complex effect on the course of battles. To illustrate,if one reads the review of British trading operations during the initial stages of theSecond World War, which Churchill gave in the secret session of fan tanon 23 April 1942,one is struck by the fact that all defeats on land, on sea andin air have one popular denominator-the disregard of technologicalcapabilities being developed by Germans and the Japanese during the pre-waryears. The U-boats played havoc with the British shipping and adverselyaffected their ability to move forces from one theatre of war to some other(prenominal), asalso to sustain them. Conversely, the development of radar technology by theBritish during the war years gave them huge advantage over theirenemies. In the present-day context, capabilities in cyber warfare, spaceassets and smart strike weapons will give a great edge to the powers that areable to develop and operationalise such technologies.(b) Leadership. The quality of military leadership has evermore exerted adecisive influence upon national power. We have the examples of the military wizardry of Fredrick the Great, Napoleon, the futility of Maginot Line psychologyof the French General Staff versus the blitzkrieg adoptive by the GermanGeneral Staff, and closer home the effect of capital military leadership ledby Field Marshal SHFJ Manekshaw in Indias 1971 War with Pakistan.(c) Quality and Size of the Armed Forces. The importance of this factor isobvious. However, the question that has to be answered by the politicalleadership of the country is, how large a military establishment can a nationafford in view of its resources and commitments or national interests?CHAPTER 4SHORTCOMINGS OF INDIAN MILITARY POWERMuch has been written and said about the potent ial for Indian military power to play a greater role on the world stage, and perhaps check Chinas expanding capabilities in the future.National Security has attained multi-faceted dimensions with wider challenges in diverse fields.There has been growing understandings of these challenges and consequently measures are being taken to overcome the same. Indias remarkable economic growth and newfound doorway to arms from abroad have raised the prospect of a major rearmament of the country. But without several policy and organizational changes, Indias efforts to modernize its armed forces will not alter the countrys ability to deal with critical security threats. Indias military modernization needs a transparent, legitimate and efficient procurement process. Further, a chief of defense faculty could reconcile the competing priorities across the common chord military services. Finally, Indias defense research agencies need to be subjected to greater oversight.Indias rapid economic gro wth and newfound access to military technology, especially by way of its rapprochement with the United States, have raised hopes of a military revival in the country. Against this optimism about the rise of Indian military power stands the realness that India has not been able to alter its military-strategic position despite being one of the worlds largest importers of advanced conventional weapons for three decades.Civil-military relations in India have focused too heavily on one side of the fuss how to ensure civilian control over the armed forces, while neglecting the other how to build and field an effective military force. This imbalance in civil-military relations has caused military modernization and reforms to suffer from a lack of political guidance, disunity of purpose and effort and material and intellectual corruption.The set up of Strategic RestraintSixty years after embarking on a rivalry with Pakistan, India has not been able to alter its strategic relationship w ith a country less than one-fifth its size. Indias many counterinsurgencies have lasted twenty years on an average, double the worldwide average. Since the 1998 nuclear tests, constitutions of a growing projectile gap with Pakistan have called into question the quality of Indias nuclear deterrent. The high point of Indian military history the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971- therefore, stands in penetrating contrast to the persistent inability of the country to raise effective military forces.No factor more accounts for the haphazard nature of Indian military modernization than the lack of political leadership on defense, stemming from the doctrine of strategic restraint. Key political leaders rejected the use of force as an instrument of politics in favor of a policy of strategic restraint that minimized the importance of the military.The Government of India held to its strong anti-militarism despite the reality of conflict and war that followed independence. Much has been mad e of the downgrading of the service chiefs in the protocol rank, but of greater consequence was the elevation of military science and research as essential to the long-term defense of India over the armed forces themselves. Nehru invited British physicist P.M.S. Blackett to examine the relationship between science and defense. Blackett came back with a report that called for capping Indian defense spending at 2 percent of gross domestic product and limited military modernization. He also recomm stop state funding and monomania of military research laboratories and established his protg, Daulat Singh Kothari, as the head of the labs.Indian defense spending decreased during the 1950s. Of the three services, the Indian Navy authoritative greater attention with negotiations for the acquisition of Indias first aircraft carrier. The Indian Air Force acquired World War II surplus Canberra transport. The Indian Army, the biggest service by a wide margin, went to Congo on a UN peacekeepi ng operation mission, but was neglected overall. India had its first defense procurement scandal when purchasing old jeeps and experienced its first civil-military crisis when an the States chief threatened to renounce protesting political contraceptive device in military matters. The decade culminated in the governments forward policy against China, which Nehru foisted on an unprepared army, and led to the war of 1962 with China that ended in a humiliating Indian defeat.The foremost lesson of 1962 was that India could not afford further military retrenchment. The Indian government launched a significant military expansion program that doubled the size of the army and raised a fighting air force. With the focus shifting North, the Indian Navy legitimate less attention. A less recognized lesson of the war was that political interference in military matters ought to be limited. The military and especially the army asked for and receive operational and institutional autonomy, a fact most visible in the wars of 1965 and 1971.The fuss, however, was that the political leadership did not suddenly become more palmy with the military as an institution they remained wary of the possibility of a coup detat and militarism more generally.The Indian civil-military relations landscape has changed marginally since. In the eighties, there was a degree of political-military confluence in the Rajiv Gandhi government Rajiv appointed a military buff, Arun Singh, as the minister of state for defense. At the same time, Krishnaswami Sundarji, an exceptional(a) officer, became the army chief. in concert they launched an ambitious program of military modernization in retort to Pakistani rearmament and nuclearization. Pakistans nuclearization allowed that country to escalate the subconventional conflict in Kashmir while stemming Indian ability to escalate to a general war, where it had superiority. India is yet to emerge from this stability-instability paradox.The puzzle of Brasstacks stands in a line of similar endings. In 1971, India did not push the advantage of its victory in the eastern theatre to the West. Instead, tender Delhi, underuberrealist Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, signed on to an equivocal agreement at Simla that committed both sides to peaceful resolution of future disputes without any enforcement measures. Indias decision to wait 24 years between its first nuclear test in 1974 and the second set of tests in 1998 is equally puzzling. Why did it not follow through after the 1974 test, and why did it test in 1998? underlying these puzzles is a remarkable preference for strategic restraint. Indian leaders plainly have not seen the use of force as a reusable instrument of politics. This foundation of ambivalence informs Indian defense policy, and consequently its military modernization and reform efforts.To be sure, military restraint in a region as volatile as South Asia is wise and has helped hold the great powers to accommodate I ndias rise, but it does not help military planning. Together with the separation of the armed forces from the government, divisions among the services and between the services and other related agencies, and the inability of the military to seek formal support for policies it deems important, Indias strategic restraint has served to deny political guidance to the efforts of the armed forces to modernize. As wise as strategic restraint may be, Pakistan, Indias primary rival, hardly believes it to be true. capital of Pakistan prepares as if India were an aggressive power and this has a real impact on Indias security.Domestic And Regional ConstraintsIndia faces several daunting domestic and border challenges within its own neighborhood that may prevent it from thinking more globally including the unresolved issue of Kashmir, an increasingly grave Maoist threat, Islamic terrorism from Pakistan, and unresolved border issues with China which broke out in war in 1962. Beijings effort to b eef up its presence in South Asia is also seen as challenging Indian dominance there. The Lack of systemIndias military modernization clay, and in all likelihood will continue to be, an a-strategic pursuit of new technology with little vision. There is a w mussiness host of problems that the nation faces, includingLittle political guidance from the civilian leadership to the military. This is true even on the general issue of what Indias major goals should be. Even the Indian navy, which is often assumed to be the most forward thinking institution within Indias military, does not see itself as more than a naval block up vis--vis Pakistan.Lack of organizational and institutional reforms. The need to reprioritize resources is never addressed, what is addressed is the procurement of new material, thus making modernization merely an exercise in running(a) expansion.No legitimate and transparent procurement system. As a result, purchases are often ridden with scandals, corrupt, del ayed and highly politicized. Indias Defense inquiry and organic evolution Organization (DRDO) is also a failed organization that is ideologically corrupt, but there has not been an honest attempt to put it under public scrutiny. instability in Civil-Military RelationsWhat suffices for a military modernization plan is a wish list of weapon systems amounting to as much as $100 billion from the three services and hollow announcements of coming breakthroughs from the Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO), the premier agency for military research in India.The process is illustrative. The armed forces propose to acquire certain weapon systems. The political leadership and the civilian bureaucracy, especially the Ministry of Finance, react to these requests, agreeing on some and rejecting others. A number of dys feeds ensue.First, the services see things differently and their plans are essentially uncoordinated. approach shot off the experience of the Kargil war and Opera tion Parakram, the Indian Army seems to have arrived at a Cold Start doctrine, seeking to find some fighting space between subconventional conflict and nuclear exchange in the standoff with Pakistan. The doctrine may not be official policy, but it informs the armys wish list, where attack helicopters, tanks and long-range artillery stand out as marquee items. The Indian Air Force (IAF), meanwhile, is the primary instrument of the countrys nuclear deterrent. The IAFs close second role is air superiority and air defense. compressed air support, to which the IAF has belatedly agreed and which is essential to the armys Cold Start doctrine, is a distant fourth.The Indian Navy wants to secure the countrys sea-lanes of communications, protect its energy supplies and defy its trade routes. It wants further to be the vehicle of Indian naval diplomacy and sees a role in the anti-piracy efforts in the Malacca Straits and the trump of Africa. What is less clear is how the Indian Navy might co ntribute in the event of a war with Pakistan. The navy would like simply to meeting past the problem of Pakistan and reach for the grander projects. Accordingly, the Indian Navys biggest procurement order is a retrofitted aircraft carrier from Russia.Indias three services have dramatically different views of what their role in Indias security should be, and there is no political effort to ensure this coordination. Cold Start remains an iffy proposition. Indias nuclear deterrent remains tethered to a single delivery system fighter aircraft. Meanwhile, the Indian Armys energies are dissipated with counterinsurgency duties, which might increase manifold if the army is told to fight the rising leftist insurgency, the Naxalites. And all this at a time when the primary security threat to the country has been terrorism. After the Mumbai attacks, the Indian government and the people of India are said to have resolved to tackle the problem headlong, but today the governments minister in cha rge of internal security, Palaniappan Chidambaram, is more under siege himself than seizing the hidden enemy.Second, despite repeated calls for and commissions into reforms in the higher(prenominal) defense structure, planning, intelligence, defense production and procurement, the Indian national security establishment remains fragmented and uncoordinated. The government and armed forces have succeeded in reforms primed by additions to the defense budget but failed to institute reforms that require changes in organization and priorities.The Kargil Review Committee, and the Group of Ministers report that followed, for example, recommended a slew of reforms. The changes most readily implemented were those that created new commands, agencies and task forces, essentially linear expansion backed by new budgetary allocations. The changes least likely to occur were those required changes in the hierarchy.The most common example of spoilt reform is the long-standing recommendation for a ch ief of defense staff. A military chief, as opposed to the service chiefs, could be a solution to the problem that causes the three services not to reconcile their prGas sensing Properties of Te Thin Films Thickness and UVGas Sensing Properties of Te Thin Films Thickness and UVThickness and UV irradiation effectuate on the bollocks upconade sensing properties of Te thin fritter awaysAbstractIn this research, ti thin fritters were investigated for use as hydrogen sulfide throttle demodulators. To this end, a tellurium thin pictorial matter has been deposited on Al2o3substratums by thermic evaporation, and the influence of heaviness on the sensitiveness of the tellurium thin subscribe for mensuration H2S assail is canvas. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, examine electron microscope(SEM) and Raman Spectrometer were utilise for characterizing the prepared warnings. XRD patterns indicate that as the weightiness increases, the crystallization improves. Observing the ima ges obtained by SEM,itisseenthat the instill size increases as the oppressiveness increases, and consequently, fewer defects will be seen in the surface of the motion picture. Studying the effect of thickness on H2S turgidity measurement, it became obvious that as the thickness increases, the sensitivity decreases and the answer and recuperation time increases. Studying the thermal influence of the thin adopt while metre H2S assail,it becomes obviousthat as the detection temperature of the thin put down increases, sensitivity and the reply and recuperation times reduce. To improve the response and convalescence time of the tellurium thin film for measuring stick H2S turgidity, the influence of UV radiation while measuring H2S muck up was also investigated. The results indicate that the response and recovery times strongly decreaseusing UV radiation.IntroductionTellurium is a P type semiconductor with narrow band gap and a gap energy of 0.35eV which makes it ideal f or use in thin film transistors 1, shoot a line detectors 2-4, optical information storage 5 and shields in passive radiative cool down 6. Recently, it has been shown that the tellurium thin film is sensitive to some toxic gases like H2S 7. Hydrogen sulfide is a toxic and corrosive gas which is organize in coal mines, oil and gas industries, chemical products plants, and the sewers. Exposure to small amounts of this gas (less 50 ppm) causes headache, poor memory, loss of appetite and irritability, while motion picture to large amounts (most of 500 ppm) will cause death after 30-60 transactions 8. So far, various semiconductor metal oxides have beenproducedfor sleuthing H2S gas such as SnO2, WO3, and CeO29-11. The main problem of these sensors is that theyrequire high temperature for measuring H2S gas, and this high temperature will shorten the life of the sensor12. Measuring gas through semiconductor metal oxide depends upon parameters like thickness of the thin film, bank dep osit temperature, and the substratematerial. So far, few reports have been issued about the sensitivity of the tellurium thin film to some reducing and oxidizing gases such as NO2, CO, NH3, and H2S 4,7,13,14. In this research, the influence of the thickness of the tellurium thin film on detecting H2S gas and also the influence of the film temperature and UV radiation while measuring H2S gas have been studied.Experiment detailsTellurium thin films with thicknesses of 100, 200, and ccc nm measured by Quartz digital thickness gauge, were deposited on Al2O3substrate by thermal evaporation of pure tellurium in a tungsten crucible. Substrates were cleaned for 30 minutes by alcohol and acetone in ultrasonic bath. The initial pressure of the vacuum chamber and the temperature of substrate while depositing were respectively 310-5mbar and 373K. The growth rate of the film and the deposition area were respectively 5nm/s and 100mm2. Gold electrodes were deposited on the surface of film throug h thermal evaporation and copper wires were attached to them by property paste. The microstructure of the films was characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD). The morphology of the films surface was determined by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Sensor response to various dousing of H2S gas was studied in a container made of stainless steel with a ledger of 250cm3.The electrical resistance of the sensors was measured by a multimeter as a feed of time. Gas limitdetection was performed for the films with different thicknesses and at different environment temperatures. The sensors were also exposed to UV radiation while detecting H2S gas. The chemical mechanism of gas detection was investigated by Raman spectroscopy technique. The spectra were recorded earlier and after impression to the gas. Raman spectra of the films were recorded in back scattering geometry with a spectral resolution of 3 cm-1. The 785 nm line of Ar+laser was usedfor excitation.Results and DiscussionX RD patterns of tellurium films with different thicknesses are shown in fig. 1. In this figure, the peaksdenotedwith star are related to Al2O3substrate. At 100 nm,Te thickness peak of low intensity is observed at 27.77which is related to Te (101) with hexagonal structure. At 200 nm, in addition to Te (101), another peak corresponding to Te (100) appears at 23.15. Finally, besides Te (100) and Te (101), a new peak is observed at 40.78which is related to Te (110) with hexagonal structure. From the XRD results, it can be inferred that, thickness increasestheresults in an increase of film crystallinity due to the increase of the number of planes that generate diffraction. Fig. 2 shows the SEM images of prepared Te films at differentthicknesses.S1At 100 nm, the grains are separated from each otherby alarge distance, thereby forming discontinuous and rough surface. increase film thickness leads to an increase of surface homogeneity and continuity, grain size increaseas well. Fig. 3 depicts the resistance variation of the tellurium thin films with different thicknesses at room temperature before moving picture to H2S gas. It can be seen that the film resistance decrease with thickness increase due to step-down of irregularity in grain arrangement and inhomogeneity onthefilm surface,which leads to a better charge carrier mobility. The sensitivity of the films to H2S is given byS=Where Raand Rgare the electrical resistance of the film in the air and the H2S respectively. Fig. 4 shows the effect of Te film thickness on sensitivity to 8ppm of H2S at room temperature.Note that the film sensitivity decreaseswithan increase inthickness. To explain this behavior, it is worth mentioning that the proposed mechanism for H2S gas measurement is as follows the type O in the air is adsorbed by the film surface, especially in the grain boundaries and film porosities. After adsorption, group O reacts with Te film surface and based on the film temperature, it can be ionised into O2 , O2-, O(in the temperatures less than 150C the ionization form is O2). These forms of oxygen ionization increase the film hole density which meansa reduction of Rain P type semiconductor such as Te. As H2S gas is added, it reacts with ionized oxygenand the result will bethereturn of electrons inside the film and reduction of the hole numbers and increase of Rgresistance. The reactions are shown belowO2(gas) O2(ads)(1)O2(ads)+ e O2(ads)(2)H2S(gas)+O2(ads) H2(gas)+SO2(gas)+ e(3)At 100 nm Te thickness, the presence of a high density of grain boundaries and defects results in a high H2S gas adsorption which causes noticeable variations in film electrical resistance,indicating an increase of sensitivity. At higher thickness, where the grain boundary and defects densities decrease,the changes in resistance are intangible involving a decrease in the sensitivity as shown in fig. 4. The other important characteristic of sensor is its selectivity. The sensitivity on exposure to 10 ppm of CO, NH3and NO was found to be 3 %,40 % and -67 % (negative sign indicates reduction in resistance), respectively. Thus we see that the Te films have much larger sensitivity towards H2S gas in comparison to other gases. Fig. 5 shows the response kinetics of Te films at different thickness (100 nm and 200 nm) after exposure to 8ppm H2S. Considering the response and recovery times, the times for reaching 90% of steady-state values of Raand Rgrespectivelycan be defined. It can be clearly seen in fig. 5 that thickness increase leads to an increase of response and recovery times. The former and the latter are due to high adsorption rate of H2S and O2gases, respectively, at 100 nm by the great numbers of grain boundaries and defects 15. Fig. 6 shows Raman spectra of 100 nm Te sample before and after exposure to 8 ppm H2S gas at room temperature. In both spectra, peaks at 123, 143 and 267 cm-1are related to tellurium. Two other peaksobserved in sample before inducing H2S gasat 680 and 811 cm-1 are assigned to TeO216. let on that the intensity of oxide phase is much less than that of Te phase indicating that a low fraction of Te film is oxidized,whichisdue to Te atoms on the surface 17. After exposure to H2S gas,based onthe proposedreaction mechanismthe TeO2peaks have almost disappeared. In addition, no peak corresponding to H2S or compounds of sulfur or hydrogen is detected in film after exposure to H2S gas. Fig. 7 shows the sensors sensitivity as a function of H2S gas absorption for 100, 200 and 300 nm samples at room temperature. The film to 100 nm Te thickness presents a linear response fromthe8 to 34 ppm range and the film sensitivity seems to saturate at higher concentration. As expected, from fig. 7it can be seenthat the sensitivity decreases as the film thickness is increased. Figure 8 shows the results related to response and recovery time for all sampleswhile being exposed to various concentrationsof H2S gasatroom temperature. Studying the resultsit isclearthat as the H2S gas concentration increases, the response time decreases and the recovery time increases.Thisis because as H2S gas concentration increases, the probability of a reaction between gas and ionized oxygen becomes more probable, and more reactionswill be observedin a shorter time which causes the resistance to change faster and finally reach a constant level. As the concentration goes up, more H2S gas molecules are absorb and their desorption requires a longer time. The resistance of different samples as a function of detection temperature before exposure to H2S gasis shown in fig. 9. In all thickness, a decrease of resistivity is observed with temperature increase due to electrical properties of semiconductor, as well as increase of oxidation reaction rate. In the caseof300 nm Te films the variation of resistance is undistinguished because ofthevery low resistance of this sample. Fig.10 shows the results related to sensitivity as a function of temperature while being expose d to 8ppm of H2S gas. Investigating the results,it is found that temperature rise leads to reductions insensitivity in all samples, because the number of charge carriers in samples increases asthetemperature rises and as a result, when samples are exposed to H2S gas, no tangible resistance change is observed and sensitivity decreases 18. In samples with 300nm thickness and with temperatures above 90Cthere is no sensitivity against H2S gas,since the number of charge carriers is sohighthat their change is never tangible by reaction with H2S gas. Fig. 11 shows the recovery and response times as a function of temperature while being exposedto8 ppm H2S gas. In all samples,as the temperature rises the response and recovery time decreases. Overall, two factors are effective for a reaction first, the molecules which are going to take part in the reaction must have a lot of energy, second, they must collide with one another in an appropriate direction. Temperature rise causes an increase in energy and more effective collisions will take place between reactants, and the response and recovery time decrease. To study the effect of UV irradiation on the sensor properties during the gas detection, samples are simultaneously exposed to 8 ppm H2S gas and UV radiationatroom temperature. Fig. 12 shows a comparison between the sensor sensitivity of the UV exposedand unexposed cases as a function of Te film thickness. It is obvious that application of UV radiation results in a dramatic reduction of sensors sensitivity. As it is well-know, UV radiation creates secondary charge carriers by an excess of electron-hole pairs formation.Increase of charge carriers numberinvolves a decrease of resistance such that the changes of resistancearenot tangible while reacting with H2S gas. Fig. 13 presents the recovery and response times as a function of H2S gas concentration before and after exposure to UV radiation.It is observedthat the recovery and response times strongly depend on UV radi ation. These two parameters decrease with UV radiation due to existence of electron-hole pairs. The created electrons react with adsorbed oxygen, so the number of ionized oxygen reacting with H2S gas increase, which can result in an increase of reaction rate between oxygen and H2S gas. The above explanations can be summarized in the following reactionsO2(gas) O2(ads)(4)O2(ads) + e O2(ads)(5)h e + hO2(ads)+ e 2O(ads)(6)H2S(gas) + O(ads) H2(gas) + SO(gas) +e(7)It is worthnoting that the increase of UV radiation intensity has no effect on sensitivity,response and recovery times of Te sensors. Also, to evaluate sensor stability, the samples of 100 nm and 200 nm Te filmweresubjected to 8 ppm H2S at room temperaturefor 60 days, thentheir basic resistance and sensitivity were measured as shown in fig. 14. The results indicate that both resistance and sensitivity of sensors remainnearlyconstant, support suitability of Te films for use as sensor.ConclusionIn this work, thickness effect of Te films for H2S gas sensing are investigated. A strong dependenceonelectrical resistance and sensitivity to Te film thickness is observed.Thismeans that increasing the thickness leads to a decrease of sensor sensitivity and increase of response and recovery times.Consideringthe sensing mechanism of Te thin films which is based on the interaction of ionized oxygen with H2S gas, the grain boundaries and the surface roughness could be considered as active sites for trapping the gas molecules. Thickness increase leads to a decrease of these active sites. The results show that although the Te sensor can operate at room temperature, a decrease of response-recovery times can be obtained at higher operating temperatures. Raman spectroscopy shows that adsorbed oxygen on the surface of Te films can be aloof after exposure to H2S gas,leading to changes in the film resistance,UV radiation,as well as response-recovery times. The prepared sensors present a stability in sensitivity and resistanc e for 60 days after exposure to H2S gas which confirmstheir ability tobeusedas H2S gas sensor.